RT Journal Article SR Electronic T1 Caging Out, Caging In: JF Pacific Historical Review FD University of California Press SP 86 OP 109 DO 10.1525/phr.2019.88.1.86 VO 88 IS 1 A1 Mendoza, Mary E. YR 2019 UL http://phr.ucpress.edu/content/88/1/86.abstract AB Border fences have a long history in the United States, and that history is deeply entangled with the rise of the carceral state. As fences along the U.S.-Mexico border grew over the course of the twentieth century, they increasingly restricted the mobility of migrants both as they crossed the U.S.-Mexico divide and once they were within U.S. territory. This article analyzes how fear of being apprehended, arrested, detained, or deported has forced migrants to remain in the shadows; and it argues that as border fences expanded in length and height, they transformed the United States into a massive, carceral state.